An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Psychology Essay

An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Psychology Essay Organisations are struggling in the current competitive economic climate. Ensuring organizational survival may ultimately come down to attracting and recruiting skilled employees (Barber Roehling, 1993). Terpstra (1994) identified recruitment as an essential strategy for organisations to prosper and survive in the global economy, suggesting the initial attraction and selection of candidates may be the most important foundation for organisational performance. As the realisation of the link between human-capital and financial growth is now a shared knowledge across sectors, the crucial importance an employee holds is broader acknowledged (Gardner, 2002). Recruitment is a fundamental organisational activity defining who will constitute the organisation (Turban Cable, 2003). The difference between a mediocre and exceptional hire could mean momentous differences for organisational profit (Wicklund-Hansen Weyergang-Nielsen, 2007). Thus the benefits of efficient and successful recruiting are increasingly recognized in research and literature (Barber, 1998; Billsberry, 2007; Breaugh, 2008). Recognising the importance of employees, individually and as a whole, organisations are increasing their recruitment investments. Ralston Brady (1994) modestly suggested the average cost of recruiting and selecting to be over $2000 per individual. Given such large amounts are spent, there is both an expectation and a demand for recruitment to be of organisational benefit. The study by Terjesen, Vinnicombe and Freeman (2007) addresses the need for adapting recruitment practices to up-and-coming graduates, soon to constitute the labour force of the 21st century. Research findings by Ryan, Sacco, McFarland and Kriska (2000) emphasize also the importance of recognising the individual applicants choice in the recruitment process. However, Ryan and Tippins (2004) argue there are still large gaps between research and practice in this area. Recruitment in the current labour market Recruitment takes place in a wider societal context and shifts in the labour market will subsequently affect recruitment activities. In tighter markets potential candidates are likely to be less critical of the process as they are in desperate need for a job (Cable Judge, 1996). Contrary, in a flourishing economy where organisations are in demand of multiple hires, the on-going competition leads to a lack of high-quality candidates. Fernà ¡ndez-Arà ¡oz, Groysberg and Nohria (2009) claim organisations will face challenges when recruiting to replace the plentiful baby boomers. Some business sectors are especially prone to this and hence compete for the best candidates, also known as the war for talent (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002; Hiltrop; 1999). In contrast to much of Europe, Norway is a country where the economy is boosting (Takla, 2012). With an unemployment rate of 2.7% and increasing growth in the industry, Norway finds itself in a position where some occupations actually lack qualified workforce. Low unemployment rates will naturally increase competition for the best people (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002), but in Norway this is also combined with a strong economy and growing companies. Recent figures from the Norwegian labour and welfare administration revealed a need for 16.000 engineers in the imminent future (Kaspersen, 2012) The numbers are consistent with research predicting technical and engineering skills of particular shortage in the years to come (Dohm, 2000). Businesses in unrelenting demand of talent are consequently competing, all depending on qualified employers to survive (Tulgan, 2001). How recruitment is managed should be of essential value especially for organisations in such a position. A recent survey showed that 92% of organisations within the oil- and gas sector in Norway were in demand for graduate engineers (Vartdal Riise, 2012). One of the largest technical universities in Norway plans to expand their capacity for engineers by several hundred (Amelie, 2012a). An emerging job market consisting of desperate organisations and cohorts of new graduates triggers the need for further insight into attraction and recruitment. Defining recruitment Recruitment literature stretches over a wide spectre, thus claiming necessity to clarify a definition for the thesis at hand. Also, it must be distinguished between the two organisational activities recruitment and selection, tightly linked and often occurring simultaneously. Recruitment can be viewed as the initial and sustained attraction of candidates, whereas selection is the process of selecting among potential employees (Rynes Boudreau, 1986). Research on recruitment has often been subject to critique of having a static view of a process that is rather quite dynamic (Barber, 1998). In response this thesis views recruitment as an on-going process consisting of several stages (Saks Uggerslev, 2010) and will apply the following definition for recruitment: (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) the actions organizations take to generate applicant pools, maintain viable applicants, and encourage desired candidates to join those organizations (Dineen Soltis, 2011, p.43). This definition differs from B arbers (1998), critiqued for only focusing on attraction of candidates. Hence, it is desirable utilizing a definition that acknowledges the ultimate outcome of recruitment, namely a candidate ´s job offer acceptance (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002). Five dimensions of recruitment As the area of recruitment research is versatile, Barber ´s (1998) distinction between five dimensions of recruitment will be applied in the following paragraph. This serves as both a framework for organising a wide research area, as well as discussing previous work with its inevitable strengths and limitations. Clearly illustrated by these examples are how the dimensions are inextricably linked, underlining recruitment as dynamic and complex (Boswell, Roehling, LePine Moynihan, 2003). Context Rynes (1991) highlights the obvious fact that recruitment occurs in a wider contextual setting. The economic climate, labour market, organisational size and business-sector are all potentially influencing factors (Rynes, 1991; Rynes, Heneman Schwab, 1980; Taylor Bergmann, 1987; Turban, Campion Eyring, 1995). As the experience of recruitment inevitably will vary, it can be of value to have more specific recruitment research related to a given context (Derous Schreurs, 2009). Moreover, the need to recognise context as a variable in concrete research is much needed, as a great deal of recruitment studies is done in experimental settings. For example, Rynes and Miller (1983) manipulated recruiter knowledge, recruiter affect, and job attributes to measure effects of recruiter influence. Goltz and Giannantonio (1995) manipulated recruiter friendliness in an experimental video-condition study. Both studies found recruitment activities to have an effect on candidates, confirming the cont ributing value of experimental studies in the development of recruitment research (Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin Jones, 2005). However, suggestions have been made that research designs using simulating job-applicants can lead to understated research claims (Rynes Miller, 1983; Uggerslev, Fassina Kraichy, 2012). Barber (1998) argues studies of experimental nature contribute to a simplification of the complexity the recruitment process holds. A simulated study does not necessarily capture the many variables and external occurrences that will influence a candidate in a real-world setting (Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin Jones, 2005). Studies utilizing real job seekers in an actual recruitment setting might validate the strength of previous findings, if holding true to contexts where influence of a recruitment process truly has consequences both for candidate and organisation. On the other hand, manipulating variables in recruitment activities would be ethically challenging (Highhouse, Lievens Sinar, 2003). Therefore, studies done in a real-life setting must choose a method in line with strict ethical considerations. Players Naturally receiving most attention in recruitment research has been organisational representatives and candidates. Recognising both parties is the social process paradigm with a view of recruitment as a two-way, inter-subjective interaction (Herriot, 2002). This perspective has progressively earned respect as an alternative to the dominating psychometric paradigm by allowing for the candidate ´s voice to be heard (Billsberry, 2007). The development towards a social process rather than a one-sided organisational choice leads to interesting interactions between candidate and organisation in the current economic climate. A number of recent studies have attempted to determine the best strategy for attracting and convincing candidates to accept job offers in a competitive market (Ferris, Berkson Harris, 2002; Turban, Forret Hendrickson, 1998; reference possibly Boswell et al, if not finding any other more about a competitive market). Extensively debated is whether recruiter characteristics and behaviour actually have an influence on candidates. Alderfer and McCord (1970) were among the first to explore the possible effect of recruiter characteristics; a continuing topic of interest as recruitment research has evolved. The meta-analysis by Chapman, Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin and Jones (2005) concluded that recruiter behaviour such as being personable influenced candidate attraction to organisations. By applying signalling theory (Spence, 1973) to recruitment, research has demonstrated how candidates view recruiters in the recruitment process as signals of unknown organisational characteristics and attributes (Turban, Forret Hendrickson, 1998). Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) found recruiters to act as a symbol of interpersonal relations in the organisation, indicating candidates use recruiter behaviour as images of interpersonal work relations. Chapman and Webster (2006) later concluded recruiter influence app ears more complex than anticipated. However, Breaugh (2012) points out that less attention has been devoted to recruiter effects over the last few years. Also, a majority of recruiter-candidate interaction research is built on experimental designs, possibly ignoring effects from a real-life human interplay (reference). It is further suggested that qualitative research could prove value beyond the majority of existing quantitative research (Breaugh, 2012). Activities Organisations facilitate recruitment activities such as campus career fairs, employment interviews and site visits to attract candidates (Arvey Campion, 1982; Turban, Campion Eyring, 1995). The review by Rynes, Heneman and Schwab (1980) and more recent research by Collins and Stevens (2002) both state that recruitment activities have the potential to influence candidates, possibly by signals of wider organisational attributes (Turban, 2001). However, there is still a need for a better understanding of how recruitment activities affect a candidate (Turban, 2001). Breaugh (2008) highlights the site visit as a recruitment activity given undeservedly little attention. An exception is the study by Turban, Campion and Eyring (1995) extending preceding research by demonstrating just how influential the site visit can be on actual job acceptance decisions. Another interesting aspect of the site visit is the possibility to meet future colleagues beyond organisational representatives often sent from the human resource department. Consistent with the suggestion by Rynes and Miller (1983), Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) found that meetings with any given organisational representative is less influential than meeting someone from the same functional area as the candidate. The site visit typically consists of several activities and Turban, Campion Eyring (1995) suggest future research continuing to investigate how applicants interpret and make meaning of attending one. Saks and Uggerslev (2010) critiques existing research for an exaggerated focus on single activities. Consequentially some activities can come across as having a very small or large influence, possibly limited by research methodology. Those who ultimately accept a job offer will have been through a more extensive process, very likely consisting of several activities. Whereas initial stages are critical to determine candidate ´s further pursuit, later stages have a profound effect on the final job acceptance decision. Recruitment activities do not occur in a vacuum. The overall experience of a recruitment process based on combined effects of activities must be acknowledged (Saks Uggerslev, 2010). Phases Experimental studies often break the recruitment process down to smaller units for investigation. This approach ignores that going through a recruitment process is not likely to be experienced as single events with a separate effect on the candidate, but rather as a process consisting of phases (Boswell, Roehling, LePine and Moynihan, 2003). The early stages of recruitment have been suggested critical, because this can decide candidates willingness to proceed with a given organisation. Critical contact theory addresses how applicants are influenced in their first meeting with organisational representatives (Ralston Brady, 1994). Rynes, Bretz and Gerharts (1991) study demonstrated the possible detrimental effects of a single interaction, showing a number of candidates actually chose to withdraw from recruitment based on a negative first impression. Due to the stress job search can hold as well as anticipation of evaluation, it has been suggested job applicants enter the process with uncertainty as a salient emotion (Proost, Derous, Schreurs, Hagtvet De Witte, 2008; Rynes, 1991). Moreover, uncertainty is likely to persist as candidates are faced with consistently limited information (Barber Roehling, 1993). Assessing levels of uncertainty is difficult in a simulated setting, unfortunately undermining a great deal of existing research (Breaugh, 1992, as cited in Barber Roehling, 1993). Studies have demonstrated that candidates weigh various information and organisational features differently throughout the recruitment process (Carless, 2005; Jaidi, Van Hooft Arends, 2011). The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) suggests peripheral processing is superior to central processing in the primary stages of a recruitment process (Larsen Phillips, 2002). The former type of information processing typically leads to a focus on environmental cues rather than relevant job characteristics. Saks and Uggerslevs (2010) study on college students found that rather focusing on the effect of a single activity or stage, the total combination of the whole recruitment process should be considered. Contrary, it has been suggested that various stages of the recruitment process in itself does not significantly influence a candidate final decision (Lawler, Kuleck, Rhode Sorensen, 1975; Powell Goulet, 1996). Findings from previous research thus prove conflicting; suggesting candidates may go through recruitment with or without a diverse range of perceptions, emotions and thoughts that influence their final decisions. Outcome For organisations to maximise utility, the ultimate end goal of a recruitment process is job offer acceptance from desirable candidates (Jackson Schuler, 1990). Nevertheless, much research has often studied candidate ´s reactions at a given point during the process. Attracting and maintaining candidates are obviously necessary requirements for a viable recruitment process. Yet, acknowledging the process inherent dynamic nature combined with the fact that organisations attempt to actively influence a potential candidate; the effects of this influence must be assessed. The study by Aiman-Smith, Bauer and Cable (2001) revealed that different factors lead to job attraction and actual job pursuit. An extensive amount of research measures only candidates attitudes, perceptions and impressions, rather than actual choice (Rynes, Bretz Gerhart, 1991). Many studies approach recruitment from the organisations view, attempting to establish how an applicant can be persuaded to accept a job of fer (Jaidi, Van Hooft Arends, 2011; reference). Such studies operate with the implicit assumption of a candidate actually making a choice (Boswell et al., 2003). However there is less knowledge of how the candidate perceives this choice or decision-making. The perspective of a candidate who has been through a full recruitment experience with the result of accepting a job offer is less investigated and will inevitably provide knowledge of important aspects of recruitment (Saks Uggerslev, 2010). Graduates A large part of an organisations recruitment activities revolve around new graduates, of interest for the new skills and updated education they contribute with (Turban, Forret Hendrickson, 1998; Wayne Casper, 2012). The recent years have witnessed changes in recruitment practices as competition for graduates tightens (Branine, 2008). However, recruitment literature and research has often been criticised for overly emphasizing college graduates (Breaugh, 2008; Rynes, Heneman III Schwab, 1980). Nevertheless, multiple interesting aspects serve justice to focusing on this particular group of job seekers. Career theory refers to the transition from student to employee as an important one, significantly affecting a person ´s life (Super, 1980). Previous research has found inexperienced job seekers to be more likely influenced by recruitment practices (Feldman Arnold, 1978; Larsen Phillips, 2002). Walker, Field, Giles and Bernerth (2008) demonstrated how candidates limited job experience and job search influenced their perception of recruitment activities. Seeking full-time employment for the very first time might be a particular meaningful event where one is exceptionally aware of recruitment practices because of their novelty. Graduate recruitment is both voluminous in size and investments( Rynes Boudreau, 1986). In addition, the study by Terjesen, Vinnicombe and Freeman (2007) suggested the coming workforce, generation Y (1977-1994) differs from previous generations. As organisations are increasingly acknowledging human capital as a competitive edge, the need for educated workforce is not likely to decrease. Liden and Parsons (1996) points out that educated candidates approach job-searching differently than candidates seeking lower level jobs, where the former is more discriminating in the process. Collectively, this demonstrates new graduates as a sample of interest for further investigation. Rather than attempting to generalise across all job seekers, clearly quite distinctive, this study recognises and appreciates graduates as a separate target group for research. Aim and research question In summary, Barbers dimensions call attention to recruitment research in the field, where context and realistic human interaction is acknowledged. There is a need to further investigate how recruitment activities and recruiter behaviour are elements of a whole recruitment experience leading to the ultimate outcome of a candidates job offer acceptance. The current economic climate holds exciting times for new graduates. Indeed, Celani and Singh (2011) highlight the competitive benefit an organisation could gain from enhanced understandings of candidate ´s reaction and appraisal of recruitment practices. By acknowledging the individual as the organisations most valuable asset, an expectation follows to consider the individual ´s perspective, also in recruitment. Breaugh (2012) highlighted the valuable in-depth insight to the candidate ´s perspective from the previous qualitative work of Rynes, Bretz and Gerhart (1991) and Boswell, Roehling, LePine Moynihan (2003). Based on a person-centric approach, Weiss Rupp (2011) suggest the human subjective experience should guide more research. Insight from candidates own words about recruitment experiences has been of inspiration (Billsberry, 2007). Therefore, the study employs a phenomenological approach to address the following research question: How does a recent graduate experience the recruitment process? A phenomenological approach Phenomenology is concerned with exploring the richness of a real, concrete, daily-lived phenomenon (Finlay, 2009). The transition from graduating student to working professional has been proven a major one, additionally supported by life-stages theory and career theory (Ng Feldman, 2007; Schein, 1978, Super; 1980). Billsberry (2007) argue job-related events such as obtaining or changing jobs are of significance, but they are also a natural experience in the inevitable progression of life. Interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) is an approach of exploration of a lived experience (Clarke, 2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis is therefore suitable to explore how a new graduate experience a recruitment process. Something about why not other qualitative methods? However, merely stating that a study is of phenomenological nature is not sufficient for methodological rigour. Adopting a philosophical stance underpinning the method of choice should be done to uphold methodological clarity (Lowes Prowse, 2001). The transcendental phenomenology as described in the original work of Husserl request suspending all presuppositions of a phenomenon through bracketing (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). This standpoint has been critiqued for not recognising the cognitive aspect of a human being situated in a contextual world (Wilding Whiteford, 2005). Furthermore, the researcher ´s seminal role in identifying, defining and formulating research is consistent with Smith ´s (2004) recommendation to avoid a superficial attempt of bracketing. The philosophical foundations underlying IPA is simply not compatible with complete bracketing, as the interpretative component inevitably acknowledges the researcher ´s role. Heidegger advocates a hermeneutic phenomenology with interpretation at its core (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). Utilizing a double hermeneutic acknowledges the dual role of the researcher, where one tries to make sense of the participants experience after the experience has been subject to sense making from the participant itself (Smith Osborn, 2003 double check book Uni). Rather than shallow bracketing, not adequate to its true form as proposed by Husserl, reflexive bracketing was done in resonance with Ahern ´s recommendations (1999). As being reflexive involves more than having an awareness of one ´s standpoint, but should be consciously exercised throughout the research process, a full reflexive account is given in section x.x (Finlay, 2002). A main goal in phenomenology is being able to understand what a particular experience is like for someone else (Creswell, 2007). Rooted in the phenomenological approach is the recognition that an experience takes place in a specific context (Willig, 2009). The contextual setting of the study will subsequently be addressed in the following section. Context To advocate high-quality research, Stiles (1993) advise explicit awareness of the social and cultural context of the research (as cited in Elliott, Fischer Rennie, 1999). IPA recognises that the individual is positioned in a context, inevitably influencing the individual sense-making process (Clarke, 2009). Furthermore, the aspect of context has often been overlooked in recruitment research, pointed out by Rynes (1991) more than twenty years ago. Erhart and Zieger (2005) continuously emphasize researchers to render the environmental context where organisational recruitment takes place. Several authors have highlighted the important factor of the current labour market (Rynes, Heneman Schwab, 1980; Turban, Campion Eyring, 1995). In response and in the belief of context-depending findings, the following paragraph will give a brief description of the context where this study took place. The region of Western Norway thrives on the oil business and a majority of workplaces originates within this sector (Boe Hornbug, 2012). Stavanger, one of the largest cities in the region is often referred to as the oil capital of Norway. Several large international oil companies base their Norwegian head offices in this part of the country. Due to constant development over the last years and a forecast of continuous growth there is a pressing need for qualified engineers. The present study was conducted in an oil company employing 70.000 across the world, whereby 2000 of these work in Norway (Taraldsen, 2012). A recent survey completed by engineering students from the largest University in the area demonstrated the company ´s high status; the company was rated among the top five most popular employers (Hult, 2012). The company still emphasizes advertising their vacancies through the most popular job-search base in Norway. In general, job advertisements underline the companys attractiveness by emphasizing their abilities and position in the market. The adverts also encourage potential candidates to apply by embracing the uniqueness of each individual employee. During winter 2011/2012, the company carried out a recruitment process for their graduate programme, hiring 25 trainees after receiving several hundred applications. On the basis of their recent recruitment experience, a number of the newly hired trainees were asked to participate in this study. Acknowledging the criticism of recruitment research ´s large focus on graduate samples (Rynes, Orlitzky Bretz, Jr., 1997), nevertheless this was seen as a factor adding to the interest of this study. The social, the cultural and the heavy media focus on the oil business sector may lead to both expectations and pressure for a new graduate. A survey of the labour market during spring 2012 demonstrated that 82% of engineer graduates already have a contract signed by completion of their education (Amelie, 2012b). Organisations are ambitious in their search for talented candidates and as a result initiate recruitment at early stages (Gjerde, 2012; Halvorsen Ellingsen, 2011). While the offensive approach of competing organisations can contribute to an awareness of the attractiveness of engineers, it can simultaneously force feelings of pressure, rush and st ress to the process of securing a job. Method Design To explore new graduates experience of a recruitment process, a cross-sectional study of qualitative nature was conducted. Interpretative phenomenological analysis was used to analyse semi-structured interviews. Procedure The researcher made contact with the organisation through a personal acquaintance in February 2012. Being aware of possible challenges in regards to organisational access, the researcher took several steps to ensure a smooth process (Johl Renganthan, 2010). Through mutual agreement between the researcher ´s area of interest as well as the organisation ´s need, a suitable sample for research was identified. The sample was chosen purposively to ensure all the participants had experienced the phenomena of interest, necessary to give insight into a particular perspective of the experience (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). Striving for a homogeneous sample, sample criteria were set to be recent graduated engineers who through the process of obtaining their first job naturally had been through a recruitment process. It was established prior to commencement of research that participants had been exposed to various recruitment activities. To increase credibility for the study the human resource senior manager of the organisation sent out the first informative e-mail, encouraging participation. This was also done to ensure the participants felt comfortable sharing their experience, given they were recently hired at the organisation. Further, the researcher established contact per e-mail with the individual with thorough information (Appendix X: Information sheet). E-mail contact is considered efficient for both parties in establishing contact and to make further arrangements for the interview (Seidman, 2006). Given practical considerations and various start-dates, 14 individuals were contacted. As IPA is concerned with the quality and not the quantity of accounts, the researcher searched for a smaller sample as 3-6 participants is recommended (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). However it was found useful to initially contact a larger number, being aware that some participants may withdraw (Seidman, 2006). All but one were initially positive, however situational factors led to a final sample of 6 participants. The researcher found this sample to fulfil the requirement of both suitable size and saturation (Kvale, 2007). Participants The sample consisted of Norwegian citizens, 3 females and 3 males (6 in total) between the ages 22-28. All participants had experienced various recruitment processes, including a site visit arranged by the organisation prior to being hired. The participants were all recent graduated engineers with a BSc or an MSc degree within various fields of engineering. All participants had their education from Norwegian universities where recruitment activities arranged by several companies had taken place in various forms. All but one participant resided in the greater area of Stavanger. Fictitious names were given to each participant to ensure anonymity. Interviews Inviting to a rich, detailed and personal account of the individual ´s experience, semi-structured interviews were chosen as method for this study. This is the preferred method for IPA as its flexibility allows for the experience of interest to lead the interview, rather than fitting it into pre-determined categories of a structured interview (Smith, 1995). Two pilot interviews were conducted early in the process, as strongly advised by Seidman (2006). This familiarises the researcher with the complexities an interview may hold. Although not identical with the actual sample, the volunteers for pilot interviews were also recent graduates having undergone recruitment processes in their search for jobs in the past year. Hence pilot interviews were useful to provide insight into possible important aspects of a recruitment experience and also led to changes in the interview structure such as fewer and less non-directive questions. The pilot was also seen as valuable training in interview technique, which according to Kvale (2007) is mastered through extensive practice. The interview guide was developed after wide reading around the topic of interest as well as inspiration from the pilot. Advised by Smith, Flower and Larkin (2009) it was attempted to approach the area of interest sideways. Rather than asking direct questions, which may be leading the participant, the questions attempted to facilitate a discussion around the topic of interest. The interview commenced by the open-ended question Could you tell me about how you got this job? (Appendix X). For an open-mind in regards to the participant ´s experience, open-ended questions were asked, allowing the participant ´s answer to steer the direction of the interview (Smith, Flowers Larkin, 2009). Although having prepared possible follow-up questions, the researcher exercised flexibility throughout the interviews to fully be able to attend to the personal experience of the individual. Probes and prompts were used as suited. The interview session was rounded off asking each participant if they had anything further to add which had not been addressed in the interview, but that was seen as important in their recruitment experience (Kvale, 2007). Interviews were held in the workplace during week 26 and 27 at the participant ´s convenience. The researcher made sure to be allocated a room in sufficient distance from the participant ´s department, to s

The invention of childhood

The invention of childhood Discuss the experiences of evacuees during World War 11 and consider what problems they, their families and their hosts experienced. Brown (2000) believes the seeds of the Evacuation came from World War 1 when the bombing of towns and cities killed many civilians. By 1938, war looked inevitable. Thousands of lives would be put at risk because of the power of the German air force. The nations children were the future of the country and had to be protected from danger. The big cities like London with large populations were seen as being at the greatest risk of bombing so it was decided that all the parents of city children should be encouraged to evacuate children to the countryside where they would be safer. Evacuation involved moving thousands of children, mothers with babies and teachers from their homes and putting them into the homes of strangers. It is debateable whether this was a good idea. This essay aims to consider the experience of evacuation on the host families, the parents of the children but most importantly on the children. According to Holman (1995) in September 1939, the Government started large- scale evacuation of children and young mothers from cities to the countryside. Planning had started as early as 1925. Inglis (1990) writes that the children arrived at railway stations carrying a bag with a gas mask, a snack for the journey and a few items of clothing. Each child wore a label with his/her name written on it. She says many children saw it as a great adventure and there was an air of excitement. Some were bewildered and resented being sent away. Children who travelled with their school friends and teachers had continuity in their lives but those travelling alone reported feeling isolated and frightened. According to Richard Titmus in Inglis (1990) the mothers of the children were pale and fighting back tears as they waved their children off. They were torn between looking after their childrens safety and putting lives at risk. Government posters were designed to make them feel guilty if they kept the children in the city. It was the first time many had been parted from their children. Inglis (1990 p37) says those parents who did let their children gooften felt nearly bereaved by the cruel but apparently necessary separation. The misery of being separated was made worse because parents had to make a means tested contribution towards the childrens keep as well as funding normal living costs. This put a burden on poorer families. Parents were given one rail ticket per month to visit children. These visits also upset the mothers because the found their children dressed in clothes chosen by foster mothers because they were considered inadequately dressed for the country. Parents resented being made to feel like paupers (Inglis p55). Some foster families had good but fair discipline and the children were happier because the household was calm and orderly. Visiting mothers could feel jealous of the harmony. Majorie Allen, an evacuee, is cited in Holman (1995), saying young mothers with very young children were billeted with families. This caused problems for both women, trying to cook and do washing in one kitchen. Sometimes they were expected to stay out of the house all day and had nothing better to do than walk around the roads with young children. This often meant that the children did not get proper meals, opportunities to play or have a quiet nap. Opportunities for noisy play were limited and the childrens imagination was poorer as a result. The mothers were bored and this was bad for the children. One said it was difficult to make lasting relationships with other mothers because you never knew when you were going back home. Host families had to be found for the Evacuees. After the phoney war of 1939 80% of the evacuees returned home only to return to the country a second time in 1940. Offering accommodation was voluntary at first but by the end of 1940 it was compulsory to take in an evacuee if you had a spare room. Cunningham (2006) says that some people welcomed the idea of giving children from inner cities the experience of living in the country and the children thrived but Brown (2000) says that some people did not welcome the idea of taking in children and claimed they were too ill or had no space. Hosts were paid a weekly amount to feed the children so some hosts did it for the extra money. Some foster mothers crammed too many children into one room just to get money. Inglis (1990) says there was not much effort put in to match children to families. Children were often paraded round and foster parents picked one. Naturally the clean children were picked first. Some siblings were split up. Often there were problems associated by the lack of matching child to family. Religion was sometimes an issue. Children had been told by their parents to do as they were told which sometimes meant going to a different church or in the case of Jewish children eating non- kosher food. There were reports of the very young being placed with very old foster parents who could not cope. Some foster mothers were child haters according to Inglis. One evacuee claimed she had to shop, clean and look after a 3 year old. Holman (1995) says some children suffered physically and emotionally at the separation from mothers and fathers and some children were beaten and starved. One boy spent his days scrounging for food and as a result he did not go to school. By the time he was n oticed by the police he was so emaciated that he had to be hospitalised. Inglis reports that children often returned home after a very short time because they were unhappy. One went back to London after 6 months because she preferred the bombs to being in North Devon. Some however were away for 5 years. Smith (1996) states that lots of families who took in children lived in large houses and the system highlighted the differences in the class system, Evacuation often led to class tension as middle-class hosts and working class evacuees struggled to co-exist under one roof (Smith 1996 p9). Hosts were shocked by standards of hygiene and behaviour. They had not realised that people lived in such poor conditions. Hendrick (1997) says that Angus Calder said the host families seemed to forget why they were taking in children and accused them of being bed wetters, bad mannered and infested with bugs. Cunningham (2005) believes these problems were signs of mental stress. Michael Aspel recounting his thoughts about being evacuated in Inglis (1990) says that one of the most profound effects of the evacuation was to bring to the nations attention the shocking disparity in childcare in Britain and the extremes of wealth and poverty that divided the nation. The plight of the evacuees showed how important the family was to emotional security (Cunningham 2006 p202). The problems of the evacuees were followed up by John Bowlby with his research on the effects of maternal deprivation. This led to a move away from separating children from their main carer. Anna Freud was also against separations and she suggested that the long separations were more distressing for children than the bombings. She studied young children who had lost at least one parent and noted that children regressed to childish behaviour like thumb sucking, bed-wetting and rocking. She believed evacuating children had the same effect. However, Josephine Barnes feelings are reported in Cunningham (2006), she believes that moving children to the country benefited them because not only did their health improve but they learnt to be independent and got experience of how people in the country live. Although there are reports of poor treatment there are many happy stories. Inglis (1990) writes about Mrs Ivy Moore who was evacuated to Dorset with her young son. She thought her billet was like paradise. This experience was not usual but there are many reports of children not wanting to return to the city after the war. Michael Caine states that he was determined to do well in life so that he could live in a big house like his foster home. Some families took children on holidays and taught them to read. There is little doubt that many host families did a good job. Some childless couples looked upon the evacuees as their own. They were very upset to see children returned to their parents. Evacuation was a remarkable historical happening because it enabled the haves to meet the have nots directly Cunningham (2006 p 165). Inglis (1990) says that journalists following up the evacuees reported that the evacuated children never really lost their attachment to the family even though many preferred living in the country to inner city slums. It seems that the children did not forget that foster families were temporary. Hendrick (1997) thinks that thousands of children did suffer and it has affected them all their life but thousands only remembered kind treatment and love. Susan Isaacs carried out research at the end of the war and reported that evacuees missed the simple things in life like playing in the park even though they had acres of countryside to play in. They missed being allowed to make a mess and being teased by siblings. Some of the houses were very grand. However, Inglis (1990) says children often resented being sent away from home even if the host families were kind. Many were homesick. She tells the story of one of the children who had been given a hair bow by her mother and kept it in her pyjama pocket. She went to sleep stroking her face with it for comfort. One child said her foster mother did not smell like her own mother and she did not like the smell. Susan Isaacs spoke to the mother of one child who had reportedly cried herself to sleep every night and always looked ill because she was so homesick. However, many children missed their foster families when they went back home. Parents expected the children to be happy when they returned home but some children said they were happier in the country. Some children said they felt claustrophobic because their houses were so small. Those who were dissatisfied felt guilty and ashamed of their feelings. Inglis says children had to adapt to new surroundings and then readapt back. They had to remodel their personalities in order to fit in with new surroundings (Inglis p 149). This is hard for young children. One evacuee states that she is a hoarder and blames this on the fact that she had to leave all her precious possessions at home when she was hurriedly evacuated. Another says she still remembers the feelings of isolation during moments of stress. This suggests that the effects of being separated have a lasting effect even though many bad memories are repressed. It seems there are many arguments for and against the evacuation programme but there is little doubt that it saved many young lives. It did cause a breakdown in the family and has been blamed for the increase in the number of children breaking the law between 1939-1941. This supports the theory that family breakdown is a major factor in juvenile crime. Tom Harrison, the MO Team Leader at the time is quoted saying in Inglis (1990 p 46) that 94% of parents reported that their children were happy. Unfortunately that means that 6% were not happy but there were changes for the better that were brought about as a result of the Evacuation. Hendrick (1997) states that the evacuation programme revealed the poor health and living conditions of inner city children. The Government could no longer get away with proposing that children were the responsibility of their parents. The single most important consequence of evacuation was the centring of the family in all future policies for childrens we lfare and the problems associated with separating children from parents led to new social policies being introduced Hendrick (1997 p 55). References Brown, M. (2000) Evacuees, Evacuation in Wartime Brittain, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, pp63-113. Cunningham, H. (2006), The Invention of Childhood, BBC Books pp191-192,p202,p233. Cunningham,. 2nd Ed. Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500, Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd, pp186-187. Hendrick, H. (1997), Children, childhood and English society 1880-1990, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp53-55. Holman, B (1995), A Very British Revolution: The Evacuation, Oxford: Lion Publishing, pp29-30. Inglis, R. (1990), The Childrens War, Evacuation 1939-1945, Fontans/Collind, pp Smith, H. (1996), Britain in the Second World War: A Social History, Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp9-42.

Sexual Harassment of Teens In The Workplace Essay -- Sexual Harassment

For millions of teenagers working in the American workforce, being sexually harassed is not an uncommon occurrence in their daily work environment. Unfortunately, teenagers in the workforce become particularly vulnerable to acts of harassment because they lack awareness about their rights as an employee and do not have enough work experience or maturity to address situations that arise in the work environment. These teenagers are usually part-time workers, overlooked for training, view their supervisors as having the ultimate authority over their job, and are more likely to be unaware of harassment policies than other workers within the workforce. Despite all of these factors, more and more organizations in industries like retail (i.e. Kmart), entertainment (i.e. movie theatres), and food services (i.e. McDonalds) to be specific, have turned to teenagers as a key source of labor. In doing so, these organizations have exposed themselves to the liability of protecting the youth tha t they employ and must take even greater measures to prevent these teenagers from being subjected to a hostile work environment. Where these organizations fail to protect the youth that they employ, the federal (and State) government, by way of passing labor laws and through the administration of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), attempts to ensure that teens are fairly educated and represented if such a hostile work environment occurs. It is through the EEOC’s guardianship that the government has recognized as well as acknowledged a need to protect teenagers from harassment in the workplace and have more recently been active in taking action against organizations that fail to do so. Despite these efforts, an increasing number of... ...nd successfully prove harassment in the workplace. Larger increases in punitive and compensatory damages are becoming more common as awards by juries in cases involving working teenagers. Despite these legal protections, there is still more that needs to be done in order to ensure that employed teenagers are being protected in the workplace from harassment. Employers must recognize their neglect of teenagers within the workforce in order to become more conscious about the hostile work environments that they may be creating or promoting for the teens that they employ. With the establishment of initiatives by the EEOC to educate these teens about their rights as employees and providing assistance to employers through the creation of specific harassment prevention guidelines, it is likely that the work environment for teens in the future will change for the better.

Oscar Wilde’s Aestheticism Essay

Though Oscar Wilde is the incarnation of the aestheticism schools, we can’t afford to ignore the other artists of the aesthetes. It is imperative that we should give a general introduction to aestheticism in the following paragraphs. Aesthetics is a branch of philosophy that studies the principles of beauty especially in art. Aestheticism is the collection of all the fruits of aesthetics. â€Å"The word ‘aesthetic’ was first found in Aesthetica, appearing as a Latin word, which is the name of two books written by Alexander Baumgarten, 1714—1762. †(Williams, 2005: 31) Baumgarten believes beauty can be defined as aesthetic, but when it is related to art, the most important part of Baumgarten’s translation of beauty is that beauty is not abstract but can be felt by people through their senses. This translation is the same as the Greek word â€Å"aisthesis†, the original meaning of which is the power of uniting mentally the impressions conveyed by the five physical senses. And in the middle of the 19th century, aesthetic is understood as â€Å"the beautiful†, which is generally related to art. In 1880, the word â€Å"aesthete† was used in a wide range, but contained a derogatory sense. Both the principle and the practice of the aesthetic movement led by Walter Pater were criticized at that time. But the British decadent writers were deeply influenced by Walter Pater. The artists and writers of the aesthetic movement held the view that sensuous pleasure should be provided by arts, not moral or sentimental messages. As a consequence, they did not accept John Ruskin and Matthew Arnold’s utilitarian conception of art as something moral or useful. Instead, they believed that art did not have any didactic purpose; it needed only be beautiful. The aesthetes developed the cult of beauty, which they considered the basic factor in art. In Britain, Oscar Wilde is famous as one of the best representatives of the aesthetes. He believes that art represents nothing but itself, and that art has its own life just as thoughts do.

History of relationship Essay

The moral naturalists believed that moral responses are a result of a long history of relationship. The naturalists argue that we observe people as they live thus one do not have to rely on metaphysics or exposure. The moral naturalists were not able to elaborate the reasons as to why morality is very important. The fact that if at all morality is natural, why are we struggling to maintain moral standards, yet it’s in the process of evolution. Moreover, the naturalist relied on science given that they related man’s morality with primates and that due to evolution, morals do change (Wikipedia. org, 2010). They argued that moral judgment is a result of intuition which makes us to come up with justifications after the facts. Moral naturalist fails in accepting that transcendence and the sacred plays a most important role in every human in the society. They consider gentleness, fairness and kindness to be moral life while neglecting awesomeness, greatness and transcendent morality satisfaction. In addition, it lays emphasis on group cohesion via cooperative virtues e. g. empathy over individual dissent which encourages strives for recognition and superiority. The moral naturalist show that religion has led to increased cases of abortion, murder, suicide and sexual immorality which in the real sense are not the case (Brooks, 2010). They support their view by arguing that belief and worship of God is unnecessary for healthy society in view of the fact that it contribute to many social problems. In support for Brooks against moral naturalism, its evidenced that each community have got different beliefs and coming up with a common moral for all society it can prove to be disastrous. This is because the motivating factor that makes a person to do what is right or wrong is what accounts for morality. This study contrast religious believers’ attitude that religion is the best in fostering moral and ethical behaviors for a healthy society. On the other hand, the religious groups believe that religion has got many benefits to the society for it helps in dealing with crime, and all other vices in the society thus lowering them and offering social beneficial. Furthermore, the study analysis shows that devotion of religious believers contribute to many ills in the society which according to Christians and other believers is not true for they consider religion as a source of blessings to their society for it carries God blessings. The moral naturalist’s favors secularism that it is more effective in securing social cohesion and non-violent resolution in the society of conflict unlike religious believers on the ground that moral order is not instituted on religion. The religious naturalist focuses on the real meaning of life. They claim that the world should be understood in religious way without a detailed system of beliefs. They endeavor to ensure that human need to value their lives and also recognize that they are part of nature. Thus they should accept science for it tries to provide reliable information about nature and the world at large. The moral naturalist claims that the religious believers have got a strong sense of right and wrong making them to indulge in vices like the secular ones. And that some religion grants people doors for committing crimes like the terrorist Muslims who blow themselves up with confidence that by so doing they will go straight to paradise. This is another shortcoming of the moral naturalist given that religious believer do have a common moral on knowing what is wrong and right since they have a moral compass from their creator (MST, 2010). When one act contrary to morality, he becomes blasphemous and thus evolved intuitions do not guarantee the right or consistence answers to any moral dilemma. The Americans do not agree with these scientific claims of morality. Most of them especially those who support Christianity support consider religion to be the promoters of morals leading to a decent society which is free from any sort of wickedness. Moreover, the theory can not find access to the American society given that most of them are Christians who believe in the existence of God. Though the scientist argue that morality is a biological adaptation and yet people are steered by their deepest cares and concerns. The study of scientist on countries with the lowest social ills revealed that non religious nation had less cases of social ills compared to religious nation, they concluded that religious belief is the main contributor of social evils (Hauser & Singer, 2005). In addition, most informed Americans will not agree to the naturalist theoretical emphasis that human morality has evolved together with those of other primates. Given that naturalism involves a deep respect to science methodology which can be proved wrong or right depending on the argument posed. Naturalism therefore can’t be a substantive proposal for it’s a result of science. In addition, attention will only be paid on what is morally upright to the society and not what scientists are trying to imply (Wisdomresearch. org, 2010). Rationality is to be the key concern of the Americans in ensuring morality has been maintained in the society hence much attention is left out of naturalism on the ground of it being just a research program and not real. Works cited Brooks, David. The Moral Naturalists, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://www. nytimes. com/2010/07/23/opinion/23brooks.html? _r=2&ref=davidbrooks Hauser, M. & Singer, P. (n d). Morality without Religion. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://www. wjh. harvard. edu/~mnkylab/publications/recent/HauserSingerMoralRelig05. pdf MST, Participation in the MST, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://wjh1. wjh. harvard. edu/~moral/test. php Wikipedia. org, Religious Naturalism, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Religious_naturalism Wisdomresearch. org, Defining Wisdom, 2010. Retrieved on 1st August 2010 from, http://wisdomresearch. org/Arete/GreeneVideo. aspx

Citizen of the United States Essay

I would define a citizen as someone, who was born in, or to a certain place, who is guaranteed certain rights in the place that they were born in. Citizenship in the United States means that a person is a legally recognized member of the nation. Each citizen has equal rights under the law. All citizens have certain rights, privileges, and responsibilities. Americans who are not citizens have many of the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities of citizens. However, they do not have such important rights as the right to vote in elections, serve on juries, or hold elected office. Means that a person is recognized as a legal member of the nation  gives each person certain rights and privileges, e.g., the right to vote and to hold public office  means each person has certain responsibilities, e.g., respecting the law, voting, paying taxes, serving on juries  explain that citizens owe allegiance or loyalty to the United States; in turn they receive protection and other services from the government Nothing is more important to America than citizenship; there is more assurance of our future in the individual character of our citizens than in any proposal I, and all the wise advisers I can gather, can ever put into effect in Washington. Warren G. Harding (1920) Rights of individuals. Citizens have rights.  personal rights, e.g., to associate with whomever one pleases, live where one  chooses, practice the religion of one’s choice, travel freely and return to the United States, emigrate  political rights, e.g., to vote, speak freely and criticize the government, join organizations that try to influence government policies, join a political party, seek and hold public office  economic rights, e.g., to own property, choose one’s work, change employment, join a labor union, establish a business  Citizens not only must be aware of their rights, they must also exercise them responsibly and they must fulfill those responsibilities necessary to a self-governing, free, and just society. No governmental action, no economic doctrine, no economic plan or project can replace that God-imposed responsibility of the individual man and woman to their neighbors. Herbert Hoover (1931) Citizens have rights. personal responsibilities, e.g., taking care of themselves, accepting responsibility for the consequences of their actions, taking advantage of the opportunity to be educated, supporting their families civic responsibilities, e.g., obeying the law, respecting the rights of others, being informed and attentive to the needs of their community, paying attention to how well their elected leaders are doing their jobs, communicating with their representatives in their school, local, state, and national governments, voting, paying taxes, serving on juries, serving in the armed forces

Important Components of Communication - 1720 Words

Essay Questions Communication is an important process of transferring information. The most important components of communication are: the sender, the receiver, a message and the feedback. First the sender who is the person or entity that is sending a message with information. The receiver gets the message from the sender. After receiving the message, he tries to encode the message and prepares a proper answer which is called, the feedback. Communication is an essential part of this modern world; being used all the time in business, pleasure, sport or many other situations. There are different types of communication, verbal and nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is communicating without words but through gesture, body†¦show more content†¦Teams are always developed in different ways. The process discussed above is just a structure of how teams can be built. None of these stages must be forgotten because their huge importance. The storming stage is forgotten and barriers still exist between members, it can lead to troubles during the performing stage and result in weaker results. Working trough different stages can only make the teams stronger and get better results. In the past there are enough examples of teams that failed working together because one of the stages where forgotten or not be taken seriously. There are also some elements like a new team member can mean the team has to go back to an earlier stage even if they already went through this in the past. Let’s go through these five stages in big company like Apple. For the development of new products a couple of people are brought together with a common goal: develop the new laptop for example. First in the forming stage different types of people are brought together to form a team. All these people are specialized in one aspect of the technology needed to develop a new laptop. In the storming stage the different team members bring out their own ideas about the part they have to develop. Brainstorming is a very important part in the process. After storming stage, it’s time for the norming part of the process. All members are starting to get used to eachShow MoreRelatedImportant Components of Communication1710 Words   |  7 PagesEssay Questions Communication is an important process of transferring information. The most important components of communication are: the sender, the receiver, a message and the feedback. First the sender who is the person or entity that is sending a message with information. The receiver gets the message from the sender. After receiving the message, he tries to encode the message and prepares a proper answer which is called, the feedback. 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The Flat Tax System Of The United States Essay - 1663 Words

Throughout the entire existence of any form of government, there has always been taxes. Most of the time (if not all), people hate taxes. With this being said, the United States has adopted a progressive tax since its very existence. We believe that if our nation is placed under a flat tax system, our economy will operate more effectively. If we incorporate a flat tax system we will be able to ensure fairness among all citizens, eliminate tax loopholes, and allow opportunities for business expansion. With this being said, we will be examining the strengths and weaknesses about the flat tax system and how it has been used into practice. First off, there are many people who do not even know what a flat tax is. By definition, a flat tax is described as, â€Å"a very precisely defined and coherent tax structure: a combination of a cash-flow tax on business income and a tax on workers’ income, both levied at the same, single rate† (Keen 4). Now, this just means that every person and every business, no matter the income, would be taxed at the same rate. Realistically speaking, when people talk about taxes, it is a matter of who wins and who loses. If we decided to adopt a flat tax system, people of lower income families would be suffering, â€Å"Under the flat tax, low-income households would lose because they now pay no income tax and are eligible for a refundable EITC of up to $3,370† (Gale 155). With this being said, the families of higher income would actually be thriving of a systemShow MoreRelatedThe United States Tax System and Flat Tax Essay1892 Words   |  8 PagesThe United States Tax Sys tem and Flat Tax The United States tax system is in complete disarray. Republicans and Democrats agree that the current tax code is complex, unfair, and costly. The income tax system is so complex; the IRS publishes 480 tax forms and 280 forms to explain the 480 forms (Armey 1). 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